The Arabic & Islamic Inscriptions: Examples Of Arabic Epigraphy
Epigraphy is a study of inscriptions, i.e., text traced upon some hard substance for the sake of durability, as on a monument, building, stone, metal, coin, ceramic, textile, etc. Max van Berchem (1863-1921) was the first to recognize the importance of Arabic inscriptions for a more precise reconstruction of early and medieval Islamic history. He can be rightly called as the founding scholar of Arabic epigraphy. In the course of his travels, Max van Berchem collected an impressive number of Arabic inscriptions from all over the Islamic world. His main published works are Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum, principally volumes devoted to Cairo and Jerusalem, the Voyage en Syrie and articles collected in the two volumes of his Opera Minora. Adolf Grohmann's Arabische Paläographie II: Das Schriftwesen. Die Lapidarschrift remains an indispensible reference for studying the evolution of Arabic paleography from pre-Islamic era until after the advent of Islam.
Here we will deal with examples of pre-Islamic Arabic and Islamic inscriptions from first century of hijra as well as those containing the Qur'anic verses from this time.
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1. Pre-Islamic Arabic Inscriptions
The pre-Islamic Arabic is often referred to as the "Old Arabic" by scholars. The most obvious characteristic of the Old Arabic is the use of the definite article ʾl-, the precursor of classical Arabic ʾal-. Old Arabic seems to have remained a purely spoken language until the late fifth / early sixth centuries CE which means that no specific script was associated with it before that period. Thus, on the rare occasions when it was written, the script associated with the local language of prestige was used: South Arabian in the southern half of the Peninsula; Nabataean at Ḥijr, ʿEn ʿAvdat in the Negev, and at al-Namarah; a form of eastern Aramaic at Mleiha on the Oman Peninsula; and early Arabic, mainly in Syria.
The Arabic script originated from the Nabataean script. T. Nöldeke was the first to establish the link between the Nabataean and Arabic scripts in 1865, which later confirmed against J. Starcky's Syriac thesis by Grohmann. The affiliation between Nabataean and Arabic scripts has now been fully documented by J. Healey. Following are the example of some of the inscriptions written in Old Arabic.
A First Century BC Arabic Inscription In Musnad Script At Qaryat Al-Faw.
Although the inscription is in the "old" Arabic, it was written in the musnad script. This is the earliest known Arabic inscription written in the musnad script.
The inscription contains six lines; first four of which are in Aramaic and the last two are in Arabic, written in Nabataean alphabet. The Arabic portion is composed of verses of poetry. The inscription shows us that not only was Arabic poetry being composed around the turn of first/second century, but also that it was much like the poetry that was familiar to us from four centuries later. The Arabic part of the inscription consists of three hemistichs in al-tawil, the most commonly used of the classical meters.
Healey and Smith have hailed it as the earliest dated Arabic document. The salient point of this inscription is that it has diacritical points on the letters د، ش and ر.
This inscription is unique is several respects. It is the earliest inscription so far discovered in the classical Arabic language. Also it is the one of the two Arabic inscriptions written in Nabataean alphabet. This inscription is the only contemporary evidence we have in Arabic about the life of King Imru'l Qais. This inscription, therefore, is of great interest both to the historians as well as philologians.
This inscription is the second oldest so far discovered in Arabic alphabet after the Raqush inscription. The salient point of this inscription is that it has diacritical points for the letters ج، ي and ن. The grammar in this inscription is straightforward classical Arabic. The language in this inscription is closer to modern Arabic than the language of Shakespeare is to modern English.
The discovery of these two inscriptions is of considerable importance in confirming suggestions of the evolution of the Arabic writing inside the Arabian peninsula rather than outside its borders.
The grammar in this inscription is straightforward classical Arabic. The language in this inscription is closer to modern Arabic than the language of Shakespeare is to modern English.
An inscripion written in Nabateo-Arabic script.
As the name suggests, it is a trilingual inscription. The Arabic, though, does not translate the Greek but merely listing six names, not all of which are mentioned in Greek.
An inscripion written in Nabateo-Arabic script.
A pre-Islamic Arabic inscription with historical content.
An inscripion written in Nabateo-Arabic script. It is the only text dated to the sixth century from north-west Arabia.
A Greek-Arabic bilingual inscription from Harran, near Damascus, Syria.
A inscription contains a curious mixture of Arabic and Nabataean characters showing the dots associated with Arabic letters ب، ت، and ن.
2. Inscriptions Of General Interest
The place Yathrib, known as Madina after the advent of Islam, has a long history of settlement. It is mentioned in cuneiform, and Minaean inscriptions. The Greek authors such as Ptolemy and Stephanus Byzantinus also mention it. The latest one is in the Nabataean script.
3. Dated Inscriptions From First Century Of Hijra
An inscription from Batman Su (or Nymphæus), Turkey. Although this inscription had generated a lot of discussion but it failed to provide a sustained interested due to lack of a photograph.
An interesting inscription written in the ḥijāzī script that leaves out tantalizing detail of its dating.
This is one of the earliest dated ḥijāzī inscriptions. It was written by Zuhayr "at the time of ʿUmar's death" in 24 AH, thus mentioning the name of the second caliph. This inscription, it appears, is destined to be the most famous of all the Arabic inscriptions as the UNESCO has added it to the Memory of the World Register of Documentary Collections. The Discovery Channel also mentioned the importance of this inscription in the news.
Albeit slightly eroded, this inscription together with the one above is the earliest dated ḥijāzī inscription. It mentions the reign of ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān.
This inscription was found by a Japanese team doing archaeological surveys in South Western Arabia.
Dated to Ramaḍan, 29 AH / May, 650 CE. No photograph was provided for this inscription, although the content was given. Recently, this inscription was discussed at length by Amikam Elad who has shown using the historical sources that it is a genuine inscription.
This is perhaps the most celebrated inscription, quoted often in the references dealing with Arabic inscriptions and palaeography.
This inscription was unearthed at the south-west corner of the Ḥaram al-Sharīf in Jerusalem during excavations conducted by Professor Benjamin Mazar of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1968. It mentions dhimmat Allāh wa ḍamān rasūlih, the earliest mention of this phrase in a dated document. There are also names of prominent companions of Prophet Muḥammad, namely, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān bin ʿAwf al-Zuhrī, Abū ʿUbaydah bin al-Jarrāḥ, and Muʿāwiya bin Abū Sufyān.
This is earliest inscription discovered so far with a political dimension. The author of the text was shocked by the murder of ʿUthmān and invokes God's wrath on the assassins. It is worthwhile noting that the title amīr al-muʾminīn is absent and no eulogy follows after the mention of caliph ʿUthmān's name. ʿUthmān was killed at the end of the year 35 AH / 655 CE. According to Imbert, this inscription most probably dates from the year 36 AH / 656 CE, when the Battle of the Camel occurred.
This inscription was found on the Darb Zubayda caravan route at Wādī 'l-Shamiya during an archaeological survey in 1970s.
The valley of Hammat Gader is famous for naturally cold and hot springs known for their therapeutic powers. These once filled the large and small pools of an early Byzantine spa, supplying it with hot and cold waters. The Greek inscription from the time of the Umayyad caliph Muʿāwiya refers to the restoration of the baths.
This is the fourth oldest dated inscription to come from Saudi Arabia. This inscription mentions Banī ʿUday bin Kʿab which belong to the tribe of Quraysh.
Umayyad caliph Muʿāwiya established two diwans in his administration - Diwan al-Rasa‘il and Diwan al-Khatam. The former looked after correspondence received by caliph and drafted his replies. This was handled by his katib (secretary). Once a document had been drafted, it was passed on to the Diwan al-Khatam, or “office of the seal”, where two or more copies of each document were made and sealed, at least one to be deposited in the archives while the other was checked, sealed and dispatched to its recipient. This arrangement was set up as a means of preventing forgeries. After Muʿāwiya was recognised as head of the Muslim community he named ʿAbd Allāh b. Amīr Governor of Baṣra for the second time in 41 AH, where he served until his dismissal in 44 AH. These seals would have validated both the documents delivered to ʿAbd Allāh and the official copy that was kept in the Diwan al-Khatam.
This graffito was found in Wādī Sabil during the Philby-Ryckmans-Lippens expedition. The inscription shows a dot below ب. This is the third earliest dated inscription.
This inscription was found on the Darb Zubayda caravan route at al-Khashna during an archaeological survey in 1970s.
It is interesting to note that this inscription shows the use of consonantal points for ي, ب، ن، ث، خ، ف and ت.
This inscription mentions the name of the three well-known angels in Islam, viz., Gabriel, Michael and Israfil whose Lord is Allah.
A band of inscriptions usually on textiles is called the tiraz. The silk with the tiraz inscription in the name of Marwan, one of the Umayyad caliphs, exists in three pieces, all found in Egypt, is dated to the time of Marwan ibn al-Hakam. This dating makes it the earliest known Islamic textile.
Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik bin Marwān reigned from 65 AH / 685 CE to 86 AH / 705 CE. His graffito is curiously succint. It does not refer to his caliph functions or his family status. Also absent are any religious elements seen in other Umayyad inscriptions. It is likely that he has inscribed it before his accession to the caliphate in 65 AH / 685 CE.
A bronze can with an inscription placed around the rim, perhaps originating from Basra during the Umayyad period.
This inscription was first attested by Maqrīzī (d. 845 AH / 1442 CE).
An interesting inscription that mentions the name of Prophet Muḥammad along with the phrase "ahl al-Islām". It also mentions the shahadah. Interestingly, Crone and Cook (Hagarism: The Making Of The Islamic World, 1977, Cambridge University Press) chose to ignore this inscription only to conclude that the word "Islam" was used only in the eighth century CE!
The inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock can be rightly called as the "big-daddy" of all the first century Islamic inscriptions. Built by the Umayyad Caliph ʿAbd al-Malik, these inscriptions have copious amount of Qur'anic verses.
The Arabic inscriptions in copper plaques at the eastern entrance and the northern portal of the Dome of the Rock are not as well known as the ones inscribed inside the Dome of the Rock. Inscribed by the Umayyad Caliph ʿAbd al-Malik, these inscriptions have five Qur'anic verses quoted partially.
This is the oldest inscription in Islam relating to the inaugral of a road and it is also the second longest and almost the fullest inscription from the time of ʿAbd al-Malik after that of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. This inscription furnishes clear evidence that ʿAbd al-Malik did not satisfy himself with repairing the old roads and maintaining them in a fit state of traffic, but that he also thought of, and at least in this instance executed enterprises on a large scale.
This unique inscription has a supplication for forgiveness of a person, his friends, his two children (or parents, given the reading of scriptio defectiva).
This 1st / 7th century inscription, hitherto unknown in published western scholarship, is of great importance as it mentions not only the full shahadah (i.e., Islamic testimony of faith) but also an important historical event and an independent documentary verification of it, that is, the reconstruction and remodelling of al-Masjid al-Ḥarām in Makkah.
This inscription was found on the Ḥajj route from Syria.
This inscription written by an individual called Habīb who was a client of ʿUrwa b. al-Zubayr, a well-known personality of early Islam. The writer is supplicating for his guidance and that his death be upon the path of God. ʿUrwa b. al-Zubayr, a famous jurist from Madinah, was the brother of ʿAbd Allah b. al-Zubayr and cousin of Muṣʿab b. al-Zubayr, the latter two struck Arab-Sassanian coins in their names.
The inscription contains complete Qur'an 38:26.
The inscription contains complete Qur'an 56:28-40 with an addition of the phrase "What will be the Companions of the Right Hand" between verses 38 and 39 perhaps to give a fitting conclusion to the inscription.
The inscription contains complete Qur'an 4:87.
The long, slender and slightly inclined form of writing is reminiscent of ḥijāzī script.
This inscription was found on the Ḥajj route from Syria.
The interesting part of this inscription is the mention of intercession (shafāʿatahu) of Prophet on behalf of his community (ummah) on the Day of Judgment.
Moshe Sharon, who published this inscription, inclines to the view that the person mentioned in this inscription is Yaḥya b. al-Ḥakam, uncle of the Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik. The date is deduced from the fact that Yaḥya b. al-Ḥakam died c. 80 AH / 699-700 CE.
This building inscription in Qasr Burquʿ was built by al-Walīd before his ascension to the throne (705-715 CE).
Lying on the Darb Zubayda pilgrimage route, this inscription has the earliest mention of the Ḥajj in a dated text. This is also the earliest mention of the Ḥajj on this route and comes close to the time when al-Masjid al-Ḥarām was reconstructed.
This interesting inscription alludes to sūrah 15:80 in the Qur'an wherein is mentioned aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr ("people of the stone-land"), also referred to as tribe of Thamud to whom Ṣāliḥ was sent as a Prophet. Writing on a rock, the writer here affirms his belief in God via what was denied by aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr, the people who lived in the rocky tract.
This long inscription was perhaps one of the first to be executed on the rocky façade. The theme of reliance comes in many inscriptions from the 1st century AH.
It contains a mixture of verses 4:1, 2:21 and 2:189.
This inscription was found in the Negev desert. Interestingly, there are nine other inscriptions that contain the name Ḥakīm b. ʿAmr which Nevo says can be dated to the same time frame.
A dated milestone at 52 miles from Damascus found in the village of Fīq (or Afīq) in Golan.
A dated milestone at 53 miles from Damascus found in the village of Fīq (or Afīq) in Golan.
Notice the absence of the title amīr al-muʾminīn, other officiate religious terminology, and any mention of his caliph-related functions. This suggests that this inscription was written before Al-Walīd bin ʿAbd al-Malik became the caliph of the Umayyad empire in the year 85 AH / 705 CE.
This inscription is no longer extant and it is reported to us in two versions: a shorter one by Masʿūdī and a longer one by Muḥammad ibn Shākir al-Kutubī (d. 1363 CE).
An interesting woven inscription from Egypt and it is the second earliest dated Islamic textile after the tiraz inscription. The inscription was done on a turban for Samuel b. Musa, perhaps a Jew or a Christian, in the year 88 AH.
Found on the Ḥajj route from Syria, this is the second earliest mention of the Ḥajj in a dated inscription from the 1st century AH. From the date on the inscription, one can calculate the 10th Dhul Ḥijjah 91 AH to be 8th October 710 CE. The Ḥajj is likely to have had additional significance this year as it was personally led by the amīr al-muʾminīn, al-Walid (r. 86-96 AH / 705-715 CE).
This inscription, a pious and moving invocation, is full of Qur'anic flavour.
This inscription contains an elaborate supplication.
This earthen bowl was manufactured for Prince Sulaymān b. ʿAbd al-Malik before his ascension to the throne 96-98 AH / 715-717 CE.
An interesting inscription mentioning Rabāḥ, a descendant of ʿUmar bin al-Khaṭṭāb. Perhaps this inscription was written by a relative of Rabāḥ when he was young and feeling sickly.
This inscription is written by ʿUmar bin ʿAbdullāh, one of the descendents of ʿUrwa, affirming his faith in monotheism and rejecting all the false deities.
Inscriptions containing the full shahadah or the Islamic testament of faith are quite rare. This is a fine example from the first 100 years of Islam.
This inscription lies on the Syrian pilgrimage route near al-ʿUla.
This deals with dated and undated glass vessels from Beit Shean that remind people of honesty and justice when dealing with customers.
It quotes part of 65:3 as it is and the rest of the verse is slightly modified without changing the meaning.
A rock inscription found in the vicinity of Ghayl al-Mandaj (al-Mabrah) pilgrim station is located on the Yemeni highland pilgrim route (so called al-Najdi) which connects Ṣanʿāʾ and Makkah. It is the first dated rock-inscription to be discovered so far alongside that road.
This inscription from Cnide in Turkey has two graffiti. Graffiti 1 consists only of one line and has an incomplete invocation. The most interesting element is the mention of the word gazwa (expedition, raid) found in a very similar context in a graffito in Kos (Greece).
This profession of faith, based on the Arabic root w-th-q is very common in the Middle East. It is interesting to note that this is dated. In addition, the signature at the end of text appears to have been added; its etching is much thicker than the preceding lines.
Perhaps the earliest inscription mentioning pre-Islamic poetry. Ibn Qutayba attributes the poem to Tubbaʿ, the king of Yemen.
This interesting inscription from Kos in Greece refers to the expedition against the mushrikīn (probably Byzantine Christians). However, due to the fragmentary nature of the inscription, it is hard to decipher the context and content fully.
This individual who wrote this inscription may be a descendant of ʿAbd Allāh bin ʿUmar bin al-Khaṭṭāb.
Found on the Ḥajj route from Syria, this inscription is interesting because it mentions the name of the tribe ʿAnzatul Azad rather than that of a particular person. In addition, the inscription refers to the pilgrims marching on the road for the Ḥajj.
An inscription invoking God to make the writer truthful, asking for pardon and granting him health.
An inscription by ʿĀṣim b. ʿUmar b. Ḥafṣ (b. ʿĀṣim b. ʿUmar b. al-Khaṭṭāb).
This inscription was discovered in 1886 at the archaeological site of Khirbat Nitil. The eight lines are located in an inner vaulted room in the western wall. The inscription shows a dot below for غ. The inscription mentions hawḍ Muḥammad, i.e., the pool of Prophet Muḥammad in the Paradise, from which the believers will drink. This pool is mentioned in many ḥadīths.
4. Undated Inscriptions From First Century Of Hijra
Written in the kufic script. This inscription shows the use of consonantal point for ت.
This milestone was found in the woods next to Aqua Bella-ʿAyn Hemed on the road between Jerusalem and coast. From Jerusalem to this milestone are 5 miles.
This milestone was found near the church of Abū Ghōsh. It is made up of limestone and shows five line, with probably three or four lines missing at the top and the upper right corner. From Jerusalem to this milestone are 7 miles.
This milestone was found in a ruin north of the watchtower at Bāb al-Wād on the road from Jerusalem to al-Ramla. It has diacritical strokes for ث، ن and ي, as seen in the last line. From Jerusalem to this milestone are 8 miles.
Marble milestone found at the cloister of Khozaiba near Deir al-Qalt on the Jerusalem-Damascus road. It has six remaining lines, as the top and the right hand side have broken off. From Jerusalem to this milestone are 107 miles.
This milestone is from Khān al-Hathrūra, Palestine, on the road between Jerusalem and Damascus. The marble slab contains seven lines engraved in bas-relief. The first two lines are broken off. From Damascus to this milestone are 109 miles.
This is remarkable and unique lead piece in the name of the Caliph ʿAbd al-Malik from Palestine bears several interesting decorative elements, including addorsed lions and confronting birds.
Two inscriptions written by Yazīd bin ʿUmayr al-Anṣāri that contanings shahadah and taṣliyyah.
This is a unique inscription attesting the name of Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān. There is no mention of his customary title amīr al-muʾminīn as seen in all the earliest inscriptions that contain his name. Palaegraphic considerations among others suggest a late 1st / early 2nd century AH date.
Written on brown sandstone boulders in a good angular early Umayyad script, incised by an expert hand. No points and no vowels.
This inscription was found on the Byzantine fortress of Rujm Ṣfār. It expresses the Muslim belief in the unity of God and that He has not partners.
Two inscriptions containing declaration of faith in God.
This graffito was found in Sadd al-ʿArḍa, about 10 kms south-east of Ṭa'if, during the Philby-Ryckmans-Lippens expedition.
An interesting inscription containing the Qur'anic verse 33:56.
5. Inscriptions From Second Century Of Hijra
An interesting inscription that mentions supplication for the acceptance of prayer and fasting during the month of Ramaḍan.
6. Inscriptions Containing The Qur'an
The primary source upon which the early Arabic inscriptions draw is, without doubt, the Qur'an. Occasionally an inscription may be composed of nothing more than a Qur'anic citation. Sometimes a Qur'anic verse may be quoted in full within the text of an inscription. More common still, an inscription will be an eclectic blend of words and phrases taken from different verses of the Qur'an, often slightly modified and / or supplemented as required; a technique that is also quite often used in khutbahs and Islamic lectures. Even those inscriptions that do not explicitly cite or paraphrase the Qur'an will mostly be comprised of words and concepts familiar from the Qur'an.
Below are some of the examples of early inscriptions from 1st and 2nd century of hijra that quote from the Qur'an.
It contains a mixture of verses 4:1, 2:21 and 2:189.
This inscription is no longer extant and it is reported to us in two versions: a shorter one by Mas‘ūdī and a longer one by Muḥammad ibn Shākir al-Kutubī (d. 1363 CE). The longer version has the verse from Qur'an 2:256.
It quotes part of 65:3 as it is and the rest of the verse is slightly modified without changing the meaning.
The inscription contains complete Qur'an 56:28-40 with an addition of the phrase "What will be the Companions of the Right Hand" between verses 38 and 39 perhaps to give a fitting conclusion to the inscription.
7. Islamic Inscriptions: Content & Context
This article discusses the Umayyad inscriptions on Dome of the Rock among others to show that the Qur'an was already codified before the construction of Dome of the Rock.
This article discusses the content and context of the inscriptions from various parts of Islamic world and reaches a conclusion opposite to that of narrowly focused work of Nevo and others.
The corpus of dated Muslim texts until 72 AH / 691 CE for the study of early Islam.
The corpus of dated texts containing the Qur'an from 1-100 AH / 622-719 CE proving the early codification of the Qur'an in Arabic.
The corpus of dated non-scriptural Muslim and non-Muslim texts mentioning Prophet Muḥammad from the first Islamic century.
Yehuda Nevo in his work on Negev inscriptions has simply used Wansbrough's "conjectural," "provisional" and "tentative and emphatically provisional" hypothesis without substantiating them with evidence, as his conclusions to "show" that Islam originated from a Judeo-Christian sectarian environment. In other words, Nevo's argument is circular.
An interesting and devastating critique by Colin Wells of Nevo and Koren's work that calls for radical revisionism of Islamic history.
A witty insight into the methodlogies of the revisionists. Revisionism rests on several peculiar assumptions and these assumptions the author highlights in a very lucid way.
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